Traditionally not Basque, she finds herself slowly integrated Biscay during a process that lasted three centuries. The Enkarterri acquires a special status which combines the rights of the kingdom of Castile and Navarre.

Today Enkarterri Rural means rural part of the historical territory, while the urban area is known as as the port area (Margen Izquierda or Ezkerraldea) of the estuary. The river Cadagua River runs through its territory.

The comarca of Enkarterri (Encartaciones in Spanish) is bounded on the south by the valleys of Ayala, Oquendo (Alava) and Mena (Burgos), on the north by Castro-Urdiales and Guriezo , and the west by Soba , Rasines, Ramales of Victoria and Valle de Villaverde , all the territories of the Cantabrian region, and east by the county of Greater Bilbao (Bizkaia).

The Mancomunidad de Municipios Encartaciones is composed of common Artzentales, Galdames, Gordexola, , Karrantza, Lanestosa, Sopuerta, Trucios-Turtzioz, Zalla and Balmaseda. Its headquarters is located in the district of the town of Aranguren Zalla, and its president is Raquel de la Torre Castro, City Councillor Sopuerta (GNP).

The Lordship of Biscay consisted of five parts: the Tierra Llana (incorporated by anteiglesia), Villas , the City of Encartaciones (Enkarterri) and Durangaldea.

The western part of the ancient Lordship of Biscay was called Encartaciones. The term “Encartaciones, Castilian, was probably introduced at a time when that language was already fully formed as one of many resulting from the evolution of Latin to the vernacular, between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries [ref. necessary], precisely the time the Biscay into history.

One explanation for the use of the term Encartaciones, which now refers to an area of Biscay, is that it comes from statutory letters between the Lord of Biscay and moradores of this land. Labayru think the name comes from the incorporation of these lands to the lord of Biscay, the private lords lords and kings from John I of Castile through letters and privileges granted them the freedom of the manor.

The Enkarterri have historically included the ten republics following:

Valley Gordejuela divided four groups Zaldua, Zubieta, and Sandamendi Irazagorria.Trucios Valley, which has the third of Puente la Calera, Gordon, Cueto, and Pando.

Valley Arcentales (Argental or instead of money?), Composed of places and Linares.

Council is divided four Galdames anteiglesia: Galdames Suso, Galdames Yuso, Loizaga and Montellano.

Council Sopuerta (Latin: Subporta) is divided six anteiglesia: Sopuerta, Mercadillo, Baluga, Olabarrieta, Bezi and Avellaneda.

Three towns are isolated in this territory, which have not been part of Encartaciones but were part of a same community with the towns of Biscay: the city of Portugalete (1322, Maria Diaz de Haro I, Lord of Vizcaya ), the city of Valmaseda (1199, Lope de Mena , lord of Bortedo) and the city of Lanestosa (1287, Lope Diaz de Haro III, Lord of Biscay).

In the past we gave a certain extension encartada anteiglesia in Barakaldo, and repeatedly claimed “oriundez” Biscay Enkarterri related sites, like Castro Urdiales, the valley of Mena and including Basauri. According to Eduardo Escarzaga, Gordejuela native, was also called a few places Encartaciones the province of Burgos earned by the Lords of Biscay. In the enclave Cantabrian Valley Villaverde, Antonio de Trueba said, “This valley is physically and historically Encartaciones own, although it is primarily of Cantabria. [What].

Currently, both the Tres Cuatro Concejos Concejos Somorrostro Valley and the town of Portugalete, belong to the county by the Greater Bilbao Guidelines Ordinance of the Territory of the Basque Country.

Laura Steinfield is the author of casa-tradicional.com . casa-tradicional is a leader in the business of ecommerce Websites, Ecommerce Templates. casa-tradicional mission is to help people to get good opportunities. Learn more about Ecommerce Solutions at casa-tradicional related site.

Weapons and armor of the Celtic warrior

Celts often despised the use of protective body armor and preferred to fight naked until 300 B.C. In the battle of Telamon in 225 B.C. some Celtic tribes still fought naked. Celtic warriors were popularly known as sword-men but they occasionally used spears and javelins in combat. The La Tene findings; which were spears measuring 2.5 m long are reported to be Celtic. Their only protection was large oval shaped shields.

The claim that Celt warrior wore heavy bracelets is hardly credible, this is because the bracelets would be impossible to use while wielding a sword. Dionysius informs us that while in combat; the Celts rolled their swords over their heads as if slashing the air side-to-side then stroke down at their foes as if splitting wood. This sword display that terrified their enemies so much, the Celts fought in companies and this can be proved by their use of standards.

Headhunters

Celtic warriors relished head-hunting in the course of /and after battle. Celtic warriors would behead fallen foes and hang the head on the horse’s neck. Once the battle was over they would display the head at the temple entrance. The severed head remains a constant theme in Celtic art to this day. The Celts were so fond of collecting heads thus it’s reported that during the Battle of Beneventum , general Gracchus had to order his army composed of freed slaves and who are thought to have been Celts to stop collecting heads and focus on combat.

Once battles were concluded, Celts often dedicated weapons taken from their dead enemies to their gods by throwing them to the river or sea. Much of the La Tene findings are attributed to this practice by Celts. Many Celtic artifacts have been unearthed at La Tene.

Celtic chiefs

Members of the upper class and chiefs wore protective gear such as amour especially when they faced the Romans and Greeks. Celts often borrowed ideas on weapons and armor from the Romans and Greeks. Several greaves were discovered at a chieftain grave at Ciumesti. A number of graves have been located in Northern Italy containing Celtic weapons and protective gear such as armor. Prior to a battle Celtic chiefs would ride out, in front of their warriors clashing weapons and proclaiming their foes to combat.

Mathieu Courchesnes in replica guns and historical occasions. If you’d like to know more about our products, please visit our fantasy weapons and our wonderful collectible replica guns.

Hardening of the Viking sword blade was the most important step in the sword making process. During this step the sword was heated to give it elasticity and hardness. The remarkable thing about the Viking sword making is that the whole process can be easily destroyed. Hardening of the blade required continual heating in red hot charcoal and the temperature was checked by the color of the hot steel, the blade was then immersed in oil in a process aimed at minimizing deformation which tends to occur quickly if the right process is not followed.

Tempering is the second heat treatment that the blade was subjected to, this involved heating of the blade to a temperature lower than the hardening temp and at the same time observing the color of the blade surface. Proper tempering resulted to an adequately firm and elastic blade.

The blade was then grinded and hand polished and oil applied using emery clothes to give it a final finish. The iron guard bore the shape of a boat with slightly raised edges. The pommel consisted of two parts namely: (1) Lobes – top portion with rounded protrusions and (2) Bottom – shaped similar to the guard. The pommel bottom was affixed by clinching the sword tang. The top part was connected to the bottom using two pinched rivets.

The pommel and the swords guard were designed from iron obtained from fittings of an old horse drawn carriage. The iron was last processed by a black smith more than 200 years ago using traditional technology. This means that the source of the material is likely to be much older. From this scrap iron sufficiently large sections for making the pommel and guard were separated by the sword smith. The top part of the pommel therefore shows visible layers of the material that was combined by forging.

The bottom of the guard and the pommel were decorated on both sides using a smith blackened engraving; this is contrary to the original which used Niello, done in an abstract Viking style. The pommel part that wasn’t engraved was decorated using a twisted silver wire that was implanted between the pommel protrusions.

The sword grip was designed from a block of beech wood carefully wrapped with a leather strap. The scabbard core was two piece of walnut tree with their opening chiseled to fit the sword. The wood core was covered in calfskin. The scabbard tip was then drawn together using a strap. The scabbard was designed with a copper clip that was meant to be attached to the rear side using two leather straps firmly wrapped.

Mathieu Courchesnes in weaponry and historical occasions. If you’d like to know more about our products, please visit our collectible flintlock pistols and our wonderful wild west rifles.

Pattern welding was a technique widely used by wordsmiths around the world and was particularly popular with the Vikings of the 11th century, the Celts of the 6th century and the Japanese. In their effort to replicate the Damascus sword, European sword smiths overlaid the blade surface with copper or silver filigree; this was done to mimic the seemingly watery lines of the Damascus sword blade. The one part that proved to be an insurmountable challenge to the European sword smith was the solid core of the Damascus steel sword, the secret to the construction of the Damascus steel sword was lost even to the Islamic blacksmiths in the early 18th century. Many scholars and researchers of medieval art credit the effort by the European to replicate Damascus steel as the birth of modern material science.

The only available information about the Damascus steel sword informs us that it was manufactured from a material called wootz steel. Wootz was the spirit of the blade and consisted of high grade iron ore with origin traced to southern India as early as 300 BC. Wootz was extracted from raw iron ore through an early process smelting process which involved melting the ore in a crucible to extract the iron and burn away impurities, this process also allowed for the addition of essential impurities such as carbon content essential to the durability and strength of the blade.

High carbon content is very essential to the strength of the steel, the challenge was controlling it’s content in the in the mixture. Too little carbon presence results to wrought iron which is a bit too soft for sword making, too much carbon and you cast iron which brittle and unsuitable for the purpose of sword making. Mess with the process and you end up with cementite formed plates in the steel, something hopelessly fragile for any purpose.

It’s interesting to learn that the Islamic blacksmiths were somehow able to control the carbon presence in the steel and create a version suitable for creation of swords. This ability was unfortunately lost in the 18th century.
It’s senseless indeed that metallurgists would loose such vital technology to history. Modern researchers have tried to unravel the mystery surrounding the remarkable strength of the Damascus steel and one of them, Dr. Peter Paufner of Dresden University Sweden and his research team compiled a report showing that they may have a clue of how high carbon steel was made and why it disappeared. That idea as the report says lies in the modern science of material better known as nanotechnology.

That’s an interesting finding, hope you’ve enjoyed reading.

Mathieu Courchesnes in replica guns and historical occasions. If you’d like to know more about our products, please visit our fantasy weapons and our wonderful collectible replica guns.

His Youth
Saladin was born in Tikrit (present Iraq) in the year of 1138. His father, Najmuddin, was a Kurdish from Azarbaijan. On the night of his birth, his father, Najmudin, decided to move to Aleppo and worked for Imaddin Zangi, the powerful Turkish governor in northern Syria.

He received a taste of military life under the guided eyes of his uncle, Asaddin, and the academic and religious elements from his father. Following the tradition in those days, Saladin was trained to be expert horse rider and handled various weapons of combat, such as the sword in and archery. While growing up, Saladin was an ordinary undistinguished youth, with a greater interest in religious studies, rather than military achievement.

Uniting the Muslims.
Egypt became the stepping stone for Saladin’s ambition to recapture Jerusalem. This opportunity came when he was part of the triumphant army sent to Egypt by the Emir of Damascus to face the onslaught of the Crusaders. Upon the death of the vizier and his uncle, (army commander Asaddin), he was appointed as the Vizier of Egypt, keeping alliance to the emir in Damascus. When the Emir in Damascus died, Saladin proceeded in his plan to unite the fractional Muslims states with single minded intention to stage a holy war.

Battle of Hattin.
This is the beginning of the downfall of the crusaders. The exhausted army was trapped. So great were the losses in the ranks of the crusaders in this single battle that the Muslims were able to overrun over nearly the entire Kingdom of Jerusalem. One by one their stronghold fell under the power of Saladin, Acre, Toron, Beirut, Sidon, Nazareth, Caesarea, Nabulus, Jaffa (Yafo), and Ascalon (Ashqelon) within three months.

Saladin’s main achievement was the capture of Jerusalem (1187). In stark contrast to the Christians who captured the city 87 years earlier, the Muslim reconquest was marked by the civilized and courteous behavior of Saladin and his troops.

By 1189 the crusaders occupied only three cities in the entire Middle East. Saladin’s conquest sparked the Third Crusade, which was led by the famed military leader Richard I (the Lion-Hearted). The clash between these two great powers ended in a draw, but a treaty was drawn up that allowed Christians to visit holy sites in the area. Saladin died a peaceful death in Damascus in 1193.

Achievement
Saladin’s every act was inspired by an intense and undivided mindset to the idea of jihad, or holy war, taking the example from the struggle of the prophet and the companions. He opened colleges and mosque and created a system to support the quest of knowledge. He invited scholars and commissioned them to write edifying works both in religious topics as well as academics’ interest. Through religious principle, which was a genuine part of his own way of life, he tried to re-create in his own realm some of the same zeal and enthusiasm that had proved so valuable to the first generations of Muslims when, five centuries before, they had conquered half the known world.

In wars against the Christian crusaders, he achieved final success with the disciplined capture of Jerusalem (Oct. 2, 1187), ending its 88-year occupation by the Franks. He demonstrated his high standard of moral value by offering chance for the Christian Troops to leave within 40 days.
His chivalrous behavior was noted by Christian writers , especially in the accounts of the siege of Kerak in Moab, and despite being the enemies of the Crusaders he won the respect of many of them, including Richard the Lionheart; rather than becoming a hated figure in Europe, he became a celebrated example of the principled leader.

The author had spent more than 10 years working with an International Airlines in the field of Training and Development. Responsible for Training Needs Analysis and providing the training soutions. Currently maintain a blog on Saladin: http://saladin-ayyub.blogspot.com/

The 2012 alignment known as the Galactic Alignment will bring about a change that begins on December 21, 2012. It is said that this particular arrangement of the planets and the dark rift at the center of the Milky Way is occurring for the first time since the creation of our current age, our current world. For the first time in recorded history, instead of looking out over the top of the galaxy, we will be looking at it from beneath the galactic plane.

There are those who are convinced this event could place the Earth in danger of being sucked into a black hole at the center of the dark rift in the Milky Way. Others feel that since a somewhat similar alignment involving just the sun and the Milky Way takes place on Winter Solstice every December, that this is just a lot of to do over nothing. But there are other odd planetary placements set to occur in the sky with this 2012 alignment that will place us below the plane of the Galactic Equator for the first time in the known history of the world.

At the same time that we look down the galactic rift from the opposite side of the Galactic Equator, there will also be an annular solar eclipse and Venus will transit across the face of the sun. So in 2012 this alignment is not only placing Earth on an intersection with the Galactic Equator, but doing so precisely aligned with the center of the Galaxy where maximum mass exists. This heavy mass means an increase in gravity creating more influence from the barycenter in our Sun. Astrologers and some astronomers predict this will all line up to deliver untoward effects on Earth.That means rapid increases in solar disruptions as part of this heavenly phenomena.

In addition to all of that due to arrive with the 2012 alignment, two other oddities are set to take place in our solar system. One of them is known as the Galactic Cross which is connected to the Key of Solomon. This formation is the result of the rest of the planets in our solar system lining up in the opposite direction of the Milky Way to create an actual cross formation in the heavens. The Galactic Cross has been awaited since the early days of the world of this current age that we live in. The Galactic Cross alignment is of particular interest to Mystery Schools, secret societies and the occult.

The Cherokee have a Constellation of the Rattlesnake that is unlike any other ancient culture’s sky mapping formations. The Rattlesnake is to appear in the sky in 2012 according to their ancient calendar on December 18, 2012 and marks the beginning of Time Untime that will last for three days. So this means that Time Untime will end on December 21, 2012. Not a great deal of information is published about the Constellation of the Rattlesnake. There is more to the story, but the Cherokee have not been forthcoming with the remainder of their forefather’s instructions. Their reasoning is simple, they do not know that we need the rest of the information and perhaps in time it will become clear that it is of use to the rest of the world. From the sounds of it the Constellation of the Rattlesnake could be the same as the Galactic Cross alignment.

The year 2012 also presents us with the solar maximum, an event that will remain in effect all year. This is expected to be an exceptionally strong solar max by NASA who has stated in print on their website that they expect the 2012 solar max to be a “doozie”, possibly as severe as 1958 or even worse than that. Add to that the gravitational effects the approaching Galaxy will add to the influence of the Sun’s damaging activity and it is easy to see that December 21, 2012 could very well be a most ominous Winter Solstice.

Whether you chose to join the group who prefers to insist that the 2012 alignment will be absolutely no different than the last few Winter Solstices, is completely your choice. Before you make up your mind though, it would be wise to not forget that the governments of the world are expecting something of catastrophic proportion to take place, and soon. They are hastily building and filling a doomsday seed bank far beneath the ground on an Arctic island, and there are some luxury bunkers of rather large proportions being constructed in Russia and at least one other location in the vicinity of the Far East. Then take a look at the Hopi legends of the Ant People, which will lead you to wonder if the reason they have survived so many previous ages of Earth is because at one point long ago, their people escaped devastation by going underground.

Learn more about the history and prophecies surrounding Mayan 2012 and get a free report at www.2012Guide.net.

The age we live in requires that kids have the best brand names and labels for school wear or they are liable to suffer ridicule and judgment at the hands of those kids that are more fortunate. This is a terrible problem in many school systems and in some cases it has even prompted poorer children to steal shoes and clothing from other school mates and stores just so they can escape this kind of harassment.

As more fortunate citizens there is a lot that we can do to help remedy the clothing problems that many school kids have if we would just remember to donate the things that our own children outgrow. It is terribly sad and preventable for a kid to have to go to school in the cold without a decent coat or good shoes to put on their feet. For parents that have a hard time stretching their paycheck far enough, buying even simple necessities like socks, hats and gloves can be difficult. Knowing where they can go to get these items for their kids is a great relief to them.

Donate all of your gently used kids clothes to a local church charity or thrift store in your area. You never know what child will benefit from things that you no longer have a use for. The economy of late has touched many families that might never have had to worry about things like warm and decent clothes for their children. It is hard to focus on buying new clothes when you are just trying to hang on to the low paying job they might have just to be able to keep a roof over their head and provide enough food from week to week.

It is sad that things have gotten to this point for so many families, but it is the truth of the situation. Why not help other kids to have what your kids do not have to worry about when it will cost you nothing except a little time and having a free heart?

Michael Affleck is a writer and you can visit his Babydoll Lingerie and Chemises pages.

The kind of serenity described by Paul at Philippians 4:7 as “the peace of God, which passes all understanding, shall keep your hearts and minds” eluded me.

Like many people I took seriously the scriptural admonitions to constantly examine myself, and the secular ones as well: “the unexamined life is not worth living.”

And still the “peace of God” was nowhere to be found.

Time passed, and while my own studies continued and I learned much it wasn’t until I read The Power of Now by Eckhart Tolle that I came to understand that the manner that I carried out that self examination had a good deal to do with my lack of peace and serenity. The constant replaying of events to see if I was overlooking some flaw in myself or if I was unfair to someone else was in and of itself a dysfunction that was actively stealing the very state I was seeking.

I read this book far before Mr. Tolle’s webclass with Oprah Winfrey, and am so glad I did. This allowed me to absorb the words, tenets and principals for myself without the filter of the bruehaha that erupted when these were broadcast to such a huge audience. And frankly I didn’t find the naysayers very convincing.

Frankly it was a bit entertaining to hear the followers of the man who asked that they disown themselves and follow him loudly decrying Eckhart Tolle’s admonition to abandon the ego. And of course, that wasn’t what he was doing at all. He was saying that the ego was out of balance, and that this preoccupation with and identification with the ego’s stances, positions and ensuing drama was unhealthy and harmful.

People that have read my work before are familiar with my statement that “The longer I live the more often the answer to my questions is Balance!” So I was quite ready to accept the idea that an out of balance ego was sure to be a source of trouble. Just as it would be detrimental for someone to abdicate all thought of self as without a balanced amount we would lack food, sleep and shelter. So I came to understand Tolle’s words to advocate a release of the out of balance ego that centers so much of it’s identity with life’s content as opposed to our true identities comprised of our consciousness.

Once I embraced these concepts, I almost immediately began to experience the promised peace and serenity. Not the absence of emotion predicted by Tolle’s detractors but a feeling of satisfaction from letting go of all the folderol that had kept me out of the present moment. To put it in a way we have all heard, but few actually experienced: “Grass was greener, the sky bluer and food tasted better.” Of course, the actuality was that my consciousness was actually finally free to experience colors, sounds, tastes and textures more fully than I had experienced since I was 8 years old…

The peace that passes all understanding is actually freedom from the tyranny of that unbalanced ego. It is freedom from the constant inner dialog as we rehash how wer were wronged, or even perhaps how we had wronged someone else. It makes it possible to release grudges and forgive what we may have previously thought to be unforgivable.

Most importantly, that peaceful serene tranquility gives all that reach for it a whole new life…

Read more about The Power of Now, The Law of Attraction, and Ho’oponopono

The Power of Now Helps Provide the Peace That Passes All Understanding

It was currently recorded in the US that the average stay of children in their foster homes is 31 months. Half of the children get to be permanently adopted. The process to get into foster care adoption may vary, depending on the policies implemented by agencies and areas. The prospective foster parents undergo training and have to obtain a license. The process also involves a lot of paperwork, background check and a home study.

Parents are also provided stipends to contribute to the expenses entailed in taking care of the children. These include clothing, school supplies and toiletries. Supervised visitation of biological parents is also done in the foster care system. Length of the visit may vary.

Of course, foster care adoptions have its advantages and disadvantages. One advantage is that it reassures parents that they are providing a very positive contribution to children and their biological families. It also builds a strong emotional bond between the foster parents and the children likewise,visibly benefitting both parties in the process. The state also provides compensation to the foster families.

There are some disadvantages also. First, both foster parents/family and children undergo the pain of separation, once and if a child is reunited to his family of origin. The stipend for foster parents is not enough to provide for the overall needs of the child. Hence, foster care adoption may also mean that foster parents have the resources to be able to tend to the needs of the child. Thus, emotional and financial strains may be created within the foster family. It also creates a feeling somehow that there is never enough support or resources for the children in foster care.

Foster care adoption may require a certain amount of money. Private and agency adoptions may require a starting amount of $5,000 to $40,000. The amount may vary, depending on the required documents the foster care adoption arrangements would entail. These factors include services, travel expenses, birthmother expenses, documents or other requirements from the state, among other factors. International adoptions costs go between $7,000 and $30,000.

In the US, the foster care system is not that costly though. One of the factors that determine the permanence of foster care adoption is the result of the rehabilitation of parents after a period of six months to more than a year. If there were very little or no changes seen after such time, parental rights are terminated (TPR). Before reaching this point, case workers must be able to tell whether the child’s case is heading towards this direction. He is then transferred to a family that has an intention to permanently adopt him. The court will process the adoption commencing once the TPR is deemed effective. The adoption also entails that the right of the biological parent to know who the adoptive parents are becomes void. Although in many cases, adoptive parents were able to build a good relationship with the birth parents.

For more information on Foster Care Adoption in Hawaii and Fostercare Adoption in Idaho.Please visit our website.

The mass murders and guillotining of people in the Vendee district of western France were unparalleled at the time and not to be exceeded until the genocides of the 20th century.

The French Revolution was a direct result of the philosophical period called The Enlightenment. Historians date the Enlightenment to roughly the middle decades of the 1700s. The major philosophical shift that occurred in the Enlightenment was a turning away from revelation (the Bible) as the authoritative source of absolute truth and the embrace of human reason as the source of truth. It is often called the age of reason although there was much illogic and anti-reason about it.

The Enlightenment philosophers embraced Natural Law as the principle way of understanding human relations. The philosophers believed in God but by rejecting propositional (Bible) revelation they limited themselves to revelation in nature.

Natural Law is the concept that God’s laws are embedded in nature and if we just observe man in the primitive state we will see the behaviors that are universal among all people and we can enact laws based on these principles. That idea sounds practical but the way the Enlightenment philosophers pursued it was flawed from the start.

The fatal flaw of Enlightenment philosophy was that by rejecting the Bible they rejected the concept of original sin and this caused them to conclude that man is “basically good” and the reason for social vice is man’s corruption by civilization. This is the myth of “The Noble Savage”

Prominent among the Enlightenment philosophers was Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). Ironically he was born to a Calvinist father. His mother died when he was an infant. Calvinism is very conservative Christian theology. Rousseau apparently rejected Calvinism from an early age.

He gives details on his many extramarital affairs in his autobiography titled, “Confessions.” He had five children by one mistress and he abandoned all five into a Paris orphanage. This was at a time when conditions in orphanages were such that eighty percent of the children did not live to adulthood.

Rousseau’s major works were numerous and included “Discourse on the Source of Inequality,” “The Social Contract” and the novel “Emile” among others.

His novel Emile is his philosophy of education expressed in the fictional story of a boy named Emile. This book got him into serious trouble because one of his characters in the novel is a priest who abandoned Christianity and embraced natural religion. The natural religion was essentially Deism which looks to nature rather than the Bible as the source of moral guidance. Emile was banned by the Parisian authorities and Rousseau was forced to leave France.

Rousseau’ writings were immensely popular and radically influenced a generation of thinkers and political leaders. Rousseau is considered one of the foremost Enlightenment philosophers yet in many ways his writings can be seen as anti-Enlightenment or postenlightenment. The Enlightenment purists confined their thinking about nature to viewing it as governed by laws of mechanics and mathematical principles. Rousseau viewed nature in a bit more of a subjective and fluid way. He did not confine himself to rigid logical reasoning.
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Rousseau in some ways could be seen as a Romantic philosopher. Romanticism came along in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Romanticism rejected reason in favor of emotion. Its return to nature was more subjective, passionate and radical.

Rousseau died eleven years before the revolution but his writings greatly influenced the radicals who brought on the French Revolution and their attempt to remove Christianity from France. The revolutionaries took over Notre Dame Cathedral and displayed a French prostitute there as “the goddess of reason.” They also abolished the seven day week and instituted a ten day week with every tenth day as a day off. Their Reign of Terror in the early 1790s was a loathsome picture of human nature that had rejected Christian morals.

Rousseau had very little influence on the American Revolution which was raging at the time of his death. The founding fathers of the United States rejected the Enlightenment notion that man is basically good. The American founders quoted the Bible far more than any other source in their writings.

The American founders believed in original sin and wrote a constitution that separated the powers of government into three branches to prevent too much power being concentrated in one individual. The French Revolution by contrast ultimately gave all power to Napoleon who went on to try to conquer Europe.

Rousseau greatly influenced Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Conservative Christian theologian R. C. Sproul has called Kant one of the most influential philosophers in all of world history. Kant really bridged the Enlightenment and the Romantics. Karl Marx, a political philosopher of immense and tragic influence, was also heavily influenced by Rousseau.

Rousseau’s legacy was a major contribution to the philosophical optimism that asserts that man, through the advance of science and art, can perfect himself and build a perfect society on earth. This optimism continued for more than a century until it crashed on the shoals of the World Wars, Hitler’s genocide and the abject failure of communism to succeed as a social experiment.

The Enlightenment rejection of the Bible has had tragic consequences that reverberate down to our own day. The Bible is God’s revelation to us. In the Bible God’s wisdom and truth is clearly stated. Furthermore the Bible is confirmed by more than 2,000 predictive prophecies that have been fulfilled or are being fulfilled down to our own day.

No other sacred writing of any other faith has anything to compare with the Bible’s record of prophecy and fulfillment. The prophecies and their fulfillments give logical proof that the Bible is inspired by God.

The Bible gives clear guidance through commandments that lay the basis for orderly civil society. The Bible’s commands regarding family life are particularly wise and essential for protection and care of children. The social chaos of western civilization today is a direct result of abandoning God’s wisdom expressed in the Bible. I’m happy to say that many are returning to the Bible and receiving spiritual rebirth through Christ.

Bill Nugent has written many articles on Christianity, philosophy and science. He has also written books that give Bible based teaching on sanctification and that caution against the error of legalism. His books are available at his website www.gracelawandsonship.com.